on 2-49 accounts, Save 30% Indeed, Rousseau, who elsewhere can be quite critical of England's political life,Footnote66 in this particular instance undertakes to defend the English by arguing that the social separation of the sexes in England does not, in fact, diminish individual happiness but rather deepens the profundity of society and therefore fosters a truer pleasure: Thus both [sexes], withdrawn more into themselves, give themselves less to frivolous imitations, get more of a taste for the true pleasures of life, and think less of appearing happy than of being so.Footnote67 Rousseau thus maintains that with the exception of family life, the two sexes ought to come together sometimes and to live separated ordinarily.Footnote68 But this separation is certainly not observed in France: The society of the two sexes, having become too usual and too easy, has harmed both men and women in his view, as the general spirit of gallantry [galanterie] stifles both genius and love.Footnote69 Men, he says, are affected as much as, and more than, women by a commerce [commerce] that is too intimate; they lose only their morals, but we lose our morals and our constitution [constitution].Footnote70 He urges sardonically: Imagine what can be the temper of the soul of a man who is uniquely occupied with the important business of amusing women.Footnote71 Finally, he elaborates on the harm that such frequent social interactions have on women: They are flattered without being loved; they are served without being honored; they are surrounded by agreeable persons but they no longer have lovers; and the worst is that the former, without having the sentiments of the latter, usurp nonetheless all the rights.Footnote72. In 1756, Rousseau left Paris. 66 For example: The English people think it is free. The best alternative to theatres is open-air festivals, in nature, to provide a unifying, patriotic spirit. A theatre in Geneva would cause the hardworking people to be distracted and pre-occupied if they were to develop a taste for it. 34546). Believing that Thrse was the only person he could rely on, he finally married her in 1768, when he was 56 years old. Rousseau was particularly opposed to the adoption of French mores in Geneva; see Whatmore, Against War and Empire, 50, 59. Geneva, which already has a large degree of inequality, does not need any more. Rousseau takes comfort in an allegiance to truth alone at the time of his break with Diderot and at which he becomes convinced that he must live without friends. We thank Matthew Mendham who, as commentator, offered insightful remarks on that occasion. In both the Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu points to the theatre as a locus of sociability that has a transformative effect on its auditors. Rousseau is, however, reluctant to engage this discussion in depth.[3][6]. What d'Alembert intended as an encomium, Jean-Jacques Rousseau regarded as an outrage.6 In 1758 Rousseau penned an open letter to d'Alembert expressing his indignation at the essay's claims regarding his beloved birthplace. Because that praise exemplifies so much of what was fundamental in Rousseau's thinking, both it and the Letter as a whole are mandatory reading for anyone who wishes to understand him. Whereas Montesquieu and Rousseau speak of female society forming and perfecting taste, Muralt asserts that the subordination of the masculine to the feminine in society corrupts tastes: on se corrompt le got; see Muralt, Lettres, 246. Marshall goes on to suggest that Rousseau's discussion of vanity, amour-propre, is inherently theatrical: the moment that people are aware they must present themselves for others, a theatrical consciousness is fostered such that the character and attributes that a person possesses become indistinguishable from what they seem to be.Footnote58 Rousseau laments that the introduction of theatre in an incorrupt society will induce people to substitute a theatrical jargon for the practice of the virtues.Footnote59 Of course, before Rousseau had offered this analysis, Montesquieu had comically depicted the tendency of social interactions to foster theatrical affectationseven theatrical masksin Rica's mistaken but understandable conflation of the actors and the audience in his description of the theatre in the Persian Letters. Free trial is available to new customers only. 8 Letter, 254. In Paris, as in Geneva, they ordered the book to be burned and the author arrested; all the Marchal de Luxembourg could do was to provide a carriage for Rousseau to escape from France. In his own name, Montesquieu asserts as much, declaring in his preface his belief that, amidst the infinite diversity of laws and mores, human beings were not led by their fancies alone. 2023 The Foundation for Constitutional Government Inc. All rights reserved. The essay reconstructs the socioeconomic and political context of eighteenth-century Geneva in order to explain the intended meaning of Rousseau's Letter to d'Alembert. Because of the natural respect men have for the moral sense and timidity of women, for men to be amongst women as actresses will be a further threat to men's morality. He notes that the citizens forbearance in the face of such criticism of the founder of their church reveals their enlightened tolerance.Footnote4 In addition, d'Alembert makes use of Montesquieu's authority when treating Geneva's laws in his essay, adducing the fact that M. In this manner, one sees that Rousseau's engagement with Voltaire in his Letter is matched by a subtle, yet substantial, engagement with Montesquieu. [3] D'Alembert's article in support of the theatre was influenced by Voltaire, who not only was against censorship, but frequently put on theatrical performances at his home outside of Geneva. You may cancel your subscription on your Subscription and Billing page or contact Customer Support at custserv@bn.com. Continue to start your free trial. Rousseau's depictions of the theatre as well as his discussions of the role of women in both French and English society reveal that the Letter bears a striking resemblance to, and, in fact, appears to be a response to, aspects of Montesquieu's thought. In the guise of La Profession de foi du vicaire savoyard (1765; The Profession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar) Rousseau sets out what may fairly be regarded as his own religious views, since that book confirms what he says on the subject in his private correspondence. [2], Rousseau believed that the theatre took people away from the community, and replaced any patriotic, unifying spirit with artificial emotions. The years at Montmorency had been the most productive of his literary career; The Social Contract, mile, and Julie; ou, la nouvelle Hlose (1761; Julie; or, The New Eloise) came out within 12 months, all three works of seminal importance. Later Rousseau states that [t]he necessary relations between morals and government have been so well expounded in Spirit that one can do no better than have recourse to this work to study these relations; see Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile or On Education, translated by Allan Bloom (New York, NY, 1979, Book 5, 458, 468. He argues that the presence and authority of women in public spaces corrupts the male youth, turning them effeminate and void of patriotic passion. For example, in praising the exclusion of women from society, which Geneva with its lack of a theatre exhibits, Rousseau adduces the English, depicting them in terms very similar to Montesquieu's portrait of them in Book 19 of The Spirit of the Laws.Footnote17 Yet whereas Montesquieu's depiction of the dour and grave English is critical, Rousseau's is explicitly laudatory. With Racine's Phaedra in mind, Rousseau denies that the theatre can teach morality: What do we learn from Phdre and pide other than that man is not free and that Heaven punishes him for crimes that it makes him commit? Even though there are other forms of entertainment in Geneva that exemplify bad manners, Rousseau claims that none of these areas are more destructive to the people's good taste than the theatre. He begins the first of these two chapters with a bold criticism of Plato, accusing him of promulgating laws that are against nature: If a slave, says Plato, defends himself and kills a free man, he should be treated as a parricide. Whereas The Social Contract is concerned with the problems of achieving freedom, mile is concerned with achieving happiness and wisdom. Rousseau's essay critiqued the immorality of the Parisian theater and argued that a theater in Geneva would have a similarly corruptive effect on their society. He propelled political and ethical thinking into new channels. Rousseau began to write whilst living with her. Rousseau adhered to the belief that restrictions and censorship are often justified to maintain civil order. In the next book of The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu specifically illustrates how the theatre appeals to our natural morality: In our theaters we watch with pleasure when a young hero shows as much horror on discovering his step-mother's crime as he had for the crime itself; in his surprise, accused, judged, condemned, banished, and covered with infamy, he scarcely dares do more than make a few reflections on the abominable blood from which Phaedra is descended; he abandons what he holds most dear [] to give himself up to the vengeance of the gods, a vengeance he has not deserved. Mostefai describes in some detail how d'Alembert's essay bears the marks of Voltaire's influence by mimicking Voltaire's own literary approach of criticising French politics and religion through the praise of another society and furthering Voltaire's interests of establishing a theatre in his neighbourhood which may fulfil the substance of Rousseau's accusation; see, for example, Mostefai, Le citoyen de Genve, 1718, 31, 3435, 41, 56. In the decadence of France, Rousseau claims the most esteemed woman is the one who is most social, most talked about, judgmental and authoritative. The central character, Saint-Preux, is a middle-class preceptor who falls in love with his upper-class pupil, Julie. Rousseau was the least academic of modern philosophers and in many ways was the most influential. Having long regarded Voltaire as an additional target of Rousseau's criticism in the Letter, the scholarship has largely ignored the extent to which Rousseau also engages with and responds to Montesquieu in this particular work. He continues that this French vivacity is corrected by the politeness it brings us, by inspiring us with a taste for the world and above all for commerce with women [commerce des femmes].Footnote24 He accepts the fact, apparently without regret, that the society of women spoils mores and forms taste [socit des femmes gte les murs, et forme le got]. On this topic, see Mosher, Judgmental Gaze of European Women, 25, 3336. The French government ordered that Rousseau be arrested, so he fled to Neuchatel in Switzerland. Wed love to have you back! It is not hard to excuse Phaedra, who is incestuous and spills innocent blood.Footnote53. In this regard see Downing A. Thomas, who suggests in passing, for example, that Rousseau seems to accept Montesquieu's teaching in Spirit that the mores of a given people fundamentally influence their taste, as Rousseau repeats that very formula in the Letter: Downing A. Thomas, Negotiating Taste in Montesquieu, Eighteenth Century Studies, 39 (2005), 7190 (76). Emphasis added. At this time, Rousseau wants to serve that truth that contributes to the "public good," that is to say, to all individuals. [3], Rousseau generally opposed the Enlightenment thrust that was occurring during his lifetime. The theme of The New Eloise provides a striking contrast to that of The Social Contract. Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab. But even that highly placed friend could not save him in 1762 when his treatise mile; ou, de leducation (Emile; or, On Education) was published and scandalized the pious Jansenists of the French Parlements even as The Social Contract scandalized the Calvinists of Geneva. The New Eloise, being a novel, escaped the censorship to which the other two works were subject; indeed, of all his books it proved to be the most widely read and the most universally praised in his lifetime. Despite drawing very different conclusions regarding the choice worthiness of sociability, commerce, and gentleness that theatre fosters than does Montesquieu, Rousseau makes essentially identical assessments and observations regarding its influence in shaping public opinion and the way in which spectacle in general contributes to the mores and manners of a given society. See also Coleman, who discerns the same influence, but who maintains that Rousseau's view of what Montesquieu calls l'esprit general is [] much less accommodating than that of the constitutional jurist; see Coleman, Rousseau's Political Imagination, 4445, note 6. Rousseau considers this play to be a work of genius, but it is, of course, morally backwards. He accepted the Scottish philosopher Hume's offer to take refuge in Britain, only to quarrel with Hume as well and soon return to France. As soon as they are elected, it is a slave, it is nothing; see Rousseau, Social Contract, in Collected Writings, IV, 3.15, 192. Want 100 or more? 19 Montesquieu, Persian Letters, letter 28, 79. Radica's article does not treat the Letter. 32 Spirit, 12.2, 188. Careful consideration of Rousseau's Letter in light of Montesquieu's Persian Letters and Spirit of the Laws reveals a much more pervasive influence, however. For example, d'Alembert selects for particular praise the type of welcome Geneva provided for Voltaire, recounting that the citizens of Geneva reveal their admirable sophistication by having provided haven for the beleaguered author and noting approvingly that these republicans bestowed on Voltaire the same marks of esteem and respect he has received from many monarchs.Footnote3 D'Alembert further observes with approbation that they now sanction in their environs the publishing of Voltaire's history, which condemns John Calvin for countenancing Michael Servetus's trial as a heretic within its walls and his burning just outside of them upon his conviction. However, Muralt's focus is on the inverted character of each sex, which results in a society that replaces good sense and simplicity (masculine characteristics) with wit and beauty (feminine characteristics); see Muralt, Lettres, 246, 260. 26 Michael A. Mosher, The Judgmental Gaze of European Women: Gender, Sexuality, and the Critique of Republican Rule, Political Theory, 22 (1994), 2544 (42). The Confessions used is the Gamier edition (Paris, n.d.). 54 Letter, 271. Jean-Jacques Rousseau - 2009 - In Rousseau on Women, Love, and Family. 3 Rousseau, Correspondance gnrale, ed. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). A decade later, Rousseau would discern that same power, but would respond by endeavouring to proscribe itat least as far as Geneva is concerned. He felt, moreover, a strong emotional drive toward the worship of God, whose presence he felt most forcefully in nature, especially in mountains and forests untouched by human hands. While Montesquieu celebrates the mores of the French, Rousseau acknowledges his predecessor's observations but expresses a marked degree of regret about such a state of affairs.Footnote46 For example, Montesquieu's Book 19 brings into stark relief the contrast between the joyful social existence of French society and the much more grave and taciturn society in England where women have no part. The principle of the theatre is to please, it is not, Rousseau argues, functional because the characters are always distant from man. Cette uvre exclusive ainsi que d'autres uvres d'art uniques ne peuvent tre trouves qu'ici! It is Rousseau's specific recognition of the advisability of changing mores through the introduction of other mores that explains his revision of his original position on the theatre. The free trial period is the first 7 days of your subscription. Women naturally have power over men via resistance in the area of relationships and this power can be extended to the play, where women can have the same control over the audience. By closing this message, you are consenting to our use of cookies. Que les Anglois se vantent, aprs cela, d'avoir les meilleures Femmes du monde; Muralt, Lettres, 12829. Christopher Kelly elaborates on a different aspect of Rousseau's critique of the theatre's moral obscurity, noting that whatever theatre does teach us about sympathy or morality towards one another, this emotional identification or fellow feeling is less pleasant once outside the performance hall because it demands that one take the trouble to help. Her frustration with the lack of control she has over her passions drives her to perpetuate the calumny against Hippolytus so that he may be banished forever, and therefore beyond the reach of her uncontrollable lust. Rousseau and D'Alembert managed to maintain their friendship after the response, though somewhat at a distance. Rahe explains that it is not simply the case that the two thinkers were opposedtheir thought is much more entwined: For the arguments that Rousseau deployed against enlightenment and commercial society and those that he presented on behalf of ancient Sparta [] were for the most part borrowed from Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws; see Rahe, Soft Despotism, 77. Overall, the population of Geneva agreed with the Letter. Scholars now refer to Rousseau's use of Montesquieu's depiction of the ancient republics and the virtue which they inculcated. For example, when Aricia, Hippolytus's beloved, begs him to tell his father that Phaedra had deceived him, he responds: What more should I/ Have told him? In the early 1750s, Rousseau had a string of successes. 177. Jean Jacques Rousseau (n. 28 iunie 1712, Geneva, Republica Geneva (d) - d. 2 iulie 1778, Ermenonville, Picardia, Frana) a fost un filozof elveian, scriitor i compozitor, unul dintre cei mai ilutri gnditori ai Iluminismului.A influenat hotrtor, alturi de Voltaire i Diderot, spiritul revoluionar, principiile de drept i contiina social a epocii; ideile lui se . Purchasing He had no formal education, but read widely in ancient and modern authors, inspired initially by his father's collection of books. [4], Towards the middle of this final section Rousseau reasons that the theatre does very little good for the poor, who cannot afford the taxes required to support a theatre. In 1758, Jean Le Rond d'Alembert proposed the public establishment of a theater in Genevaand Jean-Jacques Rousseau vigorously objected. They imagine that a foreigner who speaks to them is looking for a leg-over. This awareness of presenting oneself to be viewed and judged by others fosters politeness, manners, and the joie de vivre that Montesquieu speaks so highly of in France.Footnote64. It was in England that Rousseau found refuge after he had been banished from the canton of Bern. Montesquieu's own partiality to the gaiety of French society in particular becomes manifest when he defends it against anyone who would propose that it be restricted and reformed: One could constrain its women, make laws to correct their mores, and limit their luxury, but who knows whether one would not lose a certain taste that would be the source of the nation's wealth and a politeness that attracts foreigners to it?Footnote27. | 4. Catherine Larrre notes that although Montesquieu grants that the ancient republics needed to restrict the female presence in the public sphere so as to preserve their mores, in modernity, and especially in monarchies, feminine tastes are the spring of the commercial activity that results in a thriving public sphere: the positive effects of commerce are global ones, however much it turns individuals to self-interest, depriving them of virtue; see Catherine Larrre, Montesquieu on Economics and Commerce, in Montesquieu's Science of Politics, edited by David W. Carrithers, Michael A. Mosher, and Paul A. Rahe (Lanham, MD, 2001], 33574 (347, cf. Arguably its greatest influence was as one of the first attempts to write a rigorous philosophical history of mankind. [6], The Letter begins by Rousseau establishing the respect he has for his friend D'Alembert. He describes, for example, the power of the theatre over the human soul, noting that [m]usic arouses all the passions, and can make the soul feel softness, pity, tenderness, and sweet pleasure. In this different context religion plays a different role. Baron dtange, Julies father, has indeed promised her to a fellow nobleman named Wolmar. In a personal letter, Rousseau wrote that he was not ignorant that Voltaire had played a part in d'Alembert's entry, and indeed, he dedicates a substantial portion of the Letter to critiquing Voltaire's play, Mahomet.Footnote9 Thus, many scholars read his open letter to d'Alembert as a simultaneous response to Voltaire.Footnote10. Thus, an examination of Rousseau's discussion of theatre together with its relation to women and morality reveals that he is employing distinctly Montesquieuian terms and themes in order to engage and challenge his predecessor. Rousseau's Letter to d'Alembert on the Theatre offers an important discussion of the relation of the arts to the health of a political community. But despite such an endorsement of the social order, the novel was revolutionary; its very free expression of emotions and its extreme sensibility deeply moved its large readership and profoundly influenced literary developments. Spirit, 4.8, 41; Spirit, 19.5, 310. Rousseau was the least academic of modern philosophers and in many ways was the most influential. D'Alembert here refers to a chapter, entitled A Fine Law, in Book 20 of The Spirit of the Laws, which contains Montesquieu's only mention of Geneva in the work; see Charles-Louis Secondat de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws [hereafter Spirit, in the format of book.chapter, page(s)], translated and edited by Anne M. Cohler, Basia C. Miller, and Harold S. Stone (Cambridge, 1989), 20.16, 348. Il ne peut pas se taire aprs ce qu'il a dj fait, il faut parler au public. He was friendly with Enlightenment figures such as Diderot, and even wrote articles for the Encyclopdie, but later quarreled with them. Through the theatre, the members of the audience are reminded of their natural sentiments, because their feelings and reactions to the dramatic action confirm whether or not the characters on stage act in accord with natural morality.Footnote43 Of course, there is a discrepancy between the account of the theatre in the Persian Letters and that in The Spirit of the Laws: in the former, Rica describes attendees largely ignoring the action on stage because they are so consumed in their personal dramas, whereas in the latter, the attendees learn a moral lesson as they observe the performance. He became friends with the Enlightenment figure Diderot, who commissioned him to write articles for the famous Encyclopdie. The Letter shows Rousseau's tendency to think of the events in his own life as highly significant, as reflections of the larger social picture. Here is a lecture on Rousseau's Letter to D'Alembert. While he surely discerns the vices of commercial peoples, he also points out the positive transformative power of commerce in bringing peace and understanding among peoples; see Spirit, 20.1, 338. 6 Rousseau authored many of the entries related to music in the Encyclopdie as well as the article Economie, in Encyclopdie, ou dictionnaire raisonn des sciences, des arts et des mtiers, etc., edited by Denis Diderot and Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert; see University of Chicago, IL: ARTFL Encyclopdie Project (Spring 2013 Edition), edited by Robert Morrissey, http://artflsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:599.encyclopedie0513 [accessed 18 June 2014]. Paul Rahe captures the general influence of Montesquieu on Rousseau most powerfully: the very features of classical republicanism that had occasioned such misgivings on Montesquieu's part were the features that Rousseau found most attractive.Footnote11 Other scholars, who focus more intently on the Letter, discern Montesquieu's influence in Rousseau's formulation that some practices, including the theatre, can be appropriate and even wholesome for some societies while noxious for others, as well as in his insistence that mores are crucial in determining what types of laws and institutions a given people can tolerate and maintain.Footnote12 Despite these important insights, the scholarship has neglected to document the degree to which Rousseau's Letter is an extended meditation on Montesquieu's thought generally and Book 19 of The Spirit of the Laws particularly. Diderot, who is incestuous and spills innocent blood.Footnote53 here is a lecture on Rousseau & x27! 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